From access to agency: Why India must get more ambitious with its goals for women’s empowerment

Over the past decade, policy efforts have expanded women’s access to bank accounts, jobs and entrepreneurship. On paper, the gains are significant. But a closer look reveals a more complicated story, one where inclusion has expanded but empowerment remains uneven.

If India is serious about becoming a developed economy by 2047, it must move beyond counting how many women are included and start asking whether they actually have control over opportunities.

Consider financial inclusion. According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), nearly 79% of women in India now have a bank account that they themselves use, up from 53% a few years earlier. Government data also show that women hold over 55% of Jan Dhan accounts, with a large share concentrated in rural areas.

These are remarkable achievements. Yet, access does not automatically translate into autonomy.

Only about 54% of women report owning and using a mobile phone, and an even smaller proportion regularly access the internet via mobile devices. In practice, many women remain dependent on others to use financial services. A bank account without control is inclusion without empowerment.

A similar pattern is visible in the labour market. Female labour force participation has risen sharply in recent years. According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), it increased from around 23% in 2017-18 to over 41% in 2023-24. This reversal of a long-term decline is significant. But the story does not end there. Much of this increase is concentrated in rural areas and informal work, including agriculture and self-employment.

These jobs often lack stability, social protection and opportunities for growth. Women are working more, but not necessarily in ways that enhance their economic security or independence. Notably, a significant share of women workers remain classified as self-employed or unpaid family workers, highlighting persistent informality.

The deeper issue lies in the distinction between access and agency. Development is not only about providing resources, but about expanding people’s ability to use them meaningfully. In the same way, empowerment requires the capacity to make choices and act on them, rather than merely having access to opportunities.

One of the biggest barriers to this agency is unpaid care work. Data from India’s latest Time Use Survey show that women spend over 300 minutes a day on unpaid domestic work, while men spend far less time. Around 41% of women are engaged in caregiving activities, nearly double the proportion of men. Even among those employed, time spent on unpaid work remains disproportionately high.

This has profound economic consequences. Women’s entry into the workforce is layered on top of their existing responsibilities at home; this creates a ‘double burden.’ It limits the kind of jobs they can take, the hours they can work and their ability to pursue skills or scale businesses.

Yet, policy discussions rarely treat care as an economic issue. It is still seen as a private matter. This is a mistake. Investment in child- and elder-care is not welfare; it is a form of soft infrastructure that enables economic participation.

Another emerging constraint is the digital divide. While India has rapidly expanded digital infrastructure, women remain less connected. Estimates suggest that only about 37% of women use mobile internet services, compared to much higher rates among men. This gap is wider in rural areas, where affordability and connectivity constraints persist.

Entrepreneurship tells a similar story. Government data shows that over 30 million women-led enterprises are registered in India. This is often cited as evidence of growing empowerment. But most of these businesses are micro-enterprises, operating with limited capital and market access. Their contribution to employment and value addition remains constrained.

If women entrepreneurs are to thrive, they need more than entry points. They need access to credit, digital tools, supply chains and markets. In short, they need a supportive ecosystem.

First, policy must shift from access to capability. Financial inclusion needs to be complemented with financial literacy and digital skills. Without these, inclusion will remain superficial.

Second, the care economy must be brought to the centre of policy design. Public investment in childcare, flexible work arrangements and support systems can significantly expand women’s participation.

Third, improving the quality of employment must become a priority. This means creating jobs that are not only accessible to women, but also secure, well-paying and growth-oriented.

Fourth, digital inclusion must be treated as a gender issue. Ensuring that women have access to devices, connectivity and digital skills is essential for their participation in a modern economy.

Finally, policy must engage with social norms. Economic opportunities alone cannot overcome deeply embedded cultural constraints. Change requires sustained effort across education, media and communities.

We have made undeniable progress in expanding opportunities for women. But the next stage of development will depend on whether these translate into real empowerment.

The difference between access and agency is the difference between participation and power. If India wants to fully realize its economic potential, it must ensure that women are not just included in the economy, but are able to shape it.

The author is managing director and chief executive officer of People Research on India’s Consumer Economy.